Primary socialization and cultural factors in second language learning: wending our way through semi-charted territory

Abstract

[Introduction]: Differences in ways in which students from non-western backgrounds approach the task of second language learning, particularly ESL/EFL, have been discussed by a number of writers: Osterloh (1980), Maley (1983, 1984), Matalene (1985), Ramirez (1986), Bassino (1986), Reid (1987), Hinds (1987), Willett (1987), Riley (1988), Tinkham (1989), Burnaby and Yilin (1989), Kumaravadivelu (1991), Scollon (1991), Scollon and Wong-Scollon (1991), Oxford, Hollaway and Horton-Murillo (1992), and Xia Wang (1994). Discussions in literature on learning generally have dealt with the thinking and/or problem-solving processes of non-western and pre-literate cultures (Gladwin, 1964; Cole and Bruner, 1971; Scribner, 1979), the participant structures in societies and in schools (Erikson and Mohatt, 1982; Jordan, 1995; Lipka, 1991), the disjuncture for some between the world of primary socialization and the world of schooling (Phelan, David and Hanh, 1991; Heath, 1982; Au and Jordan, 1981; Au, 1993). This paper explores the relationships between certain cultural factors related to language use, and attitudes at both micro (classroom) and macro (society) levels and their possible impact upon ESL learning. Although the primary focus is on ESL learning, the discussion of attitudes at the macrolevel inevitably encompasses academic learning generally. Pedagogical implications will be exemplified with cases of successful incorporation of the understandings and behaviors that learners bring with them to classroom programs and practices. It will also describe how these understandings can be put into effect in the provision of programs that enhance students' chances of academic success. A research agenda is also suggested in order to answer questions of the type that Riley (1988, p. 29) has posed, whether '[cultural variation] is ... important enough to merit taking consideration, or should we bypass it and go straight on to individual variation?'